Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales

This is an audio link to The Canterbury Tales: "General Prologue" read in the original Middle English. 

Geoffrey Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales: 

“The Miller's Tale”

Chaucer wrote the collection of stories known as The Canterbury Tales in the 14th century as a poetic satire (Character). The beauty of the work is that just about every kind of class is represented from the time period and each is made fun of with just as much vigor as the next. Chaucer did not discriminate when it came to exposing embarrassing (and often times ironic and realistic) situations in his poetry. Satire was Chaucer’s way of criticizing the behaviors of the society in which he lived. He uses the humor of his satire to soften the blows of his criticism, especially towards those in power politically, which allows him freedom from fear of possible retribution. His use of irony is effective in that it appears in a way that is not necessarily overtly offensive. Yet, there is often a scathing analysis hidden behind the charmingly naïve narrator’s descriptions. The style of Chaucer’s poetry is incredibly useful in that it creates a flow in the words that is both easy to follow for the commoner and generally fun to read. It is through Chaucer’s intentional blend of these two flavors, style and irony, that he creates life out of stationary word-art. 

In The Canterbury Tales, Chaucer uses a particular style of poetry throughout all 17,000 lines of the work (Canterbury). The compilation is written in iambic pentameter, in the dialect of the commoners—Middle English—as opposed to Latin or French, which were the languages of scholars and nobles of the period (Words). The lines are written using “open heroic couplets,” or “riding rhymes.” This form of rhyming scheme is of unknown origin, but Chaucer is thought to be the first to have used it extensively (Britannica.com). The use of this form of rhyme is so moving because it creates an interesting sound when read, much like the rhythm of a heartbeat, or the joyful bounciness of a gospel hymn. Its exciting style is part of what hooks its readers and leaves them with an aftertaste of laughter.

The irony in The Canterbury Tales is hysterical if only for the offhanded glide it makes into each flowing couplet in which it appears. Chaucer’s narrator, who certainly doesn’t appear to mean anything offensive by what he says, describes things in a way that seems honest but is nonetheless hilarious. In the “General Prologue,” the narrator describes each of the main characters of The Canterbury Tales, being sure not to leave out even the parts that might be unfavorable, such as the Squire’s lustiness (Norton 1702, lines 79, 95-96), and the Nun/Prioress’ pride (1703, lines 135-137). The irony found in these characters usually has to do with their character traits or actions, which often oppose their positions in society. For instance, though monks are supposed to take a vow of poverty, the Monk in the “General Prologue” of The Canterbury Tales is rich, has hounds, a horse, and hunts like a nobleman of the period (lines 161-203). 

In particular, “The Miller’s Tale” is a masterpiece of humor because it is full of jokes that remain funny to this day.  This is due to its intended audience, which was everyone from the common man to the nobles. With its affairs of the heart, farts, lies, slander, and mention of literal ass-kissing, “The Miller’s Tale” has all the makings of a reality television show of the modern age. The dramatic irony in the way Nicholas decides to follow Alison’s example by putting his rear out the window, not knowing that Absolom is waiting outside with a hot coulter to brand him, is simply brilliant (Norton 1730-31, lines 512-590). While there have been a few ideas passed around about the moral for this story, ranging from "don't marry a younger person" to "don't fall in love with a married woman," perhaps the best is simply, "do not dangle thine rear out of thine window (or anyone's window for that matter)."

Overall, Chaucer did his darnedest to make everyone feel welcome in his criticism of society. It took him roughly two decades to complete the 24 tales found in The Canterbury Tales--this is surprising considering he had planned to write 100 tales originally (British). However, it was nearly 70 years after Chaucer’s death before the entire compilation of tales was published (British). Whether or not this was due to how scandalous society might have thought his narrative to be, we are left only to ponder. Yet, since the 14th century, we have been reading and studying his amazing work, and this would probably have pleased him very much. After all, he wrote it with such intent and beauty that he spent every year for 20 years writing 850 words on average--that's like an epic poem per year for as long as most average college students have been alive! That's dedication!

You can view this comic in full-size here.

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is from a list of tales considered “Arthurian,” or relating to the legends of King Arthur and his knights. This particular tale was written in the 14th century (about the time Chaucer was also writing his work, The Canterbury Tales) by an anonymous author (also known as the "Pearl Poet") (Sir Gawain). He is considered one of the greatest poets of the period, and wrote using a North West Midland dialect of English, which included words from the Scandinavian and French languages (not to mention an alliterative poetic style) (Notes).

There are a number of reasons for why Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is a significant work of its time. The most important reasons for the tale's significance are the symbolism found in the work, and the style in which it was written, due to their mutual relation to the religious and moral codes found during the 14th century.

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is filled to the brim with symbolism. With its distinct Arthurian style, this tale happens to clutch tightly to ideas of chivalry, especially fealty to one's lord or lady. This is seen in several of the major scenes in the poem. Sir Gawain intervenes between his lord, King Arthur, and the Green Knight initially, saying "I beseech, before all here,/ That this melee may be mine" (Norton 1650, lines 341-342). Sir Gawain goes on to say, "I am the weakest, well I know, and of wit feeblest;/ And the loss of my life would be least of any" (lines 354-355) and soon after, "this folly befits not a king" (358). In this way, Sir Gawain lays down his life in place of his king, showing him the utmost loyalty. Sir Gawain again shows off his chivalrous heart when he makes a solemn vow (that he honors, the fool!) to the Green Knight to have his head cut off when they meet again in a year (404-453). When he meets the Green Knight again (who is in disguise), Sir Gawain makes a vow with the Green Knight as his host/lord to give everything Sir Gawain has "earned" to the emerald-hued knight. In return the Green Knight vows to give Sir Gawain everything he has caught during his hunts (1105-1110). Sir Gawain honors this agreement until the Green Knight's wife gives Sir Gawain her girdle as protection (1829-1869). Then, because he only has one girdle and he'd like to not be killed later in his fight with the Green Knight, Sir Gawain keeps the girdle for himself and lies to the Green one, saying, "...all that I owe here is openly paid" (1941). The moment Sir Gawain lies, he breaks the vow he made with his green friend, and later is punished with a nick on the neck as penance (2309-2314). The girdle itself symbolizes the idea that Sir Gawain is holding something back/in when he tells the Green Knight that his debt has been paid.

The pentangle (as pictured above) is on Sir Gawain shield in Part II (Norton 1656) and its symbolism is described in lines 619-665. They are:  '1. "Fiue wyttez" (five senses): may indicate that Gawain did not sin through sensual indulgence...
'2. "Fyue fyngres" (five fingers): no special significance is apparent here; may signify manual competence or physical strength. Some critics refer to the use in some devotional manuals of the image of the five-fingered hand.
'3. "Fyue woundez" (Five Wounds of Christ): a typical subject of meditation; here Gawain's fealty or faith is said to depend on them.
'4. "Fyue joyez" (Five Joys of Mary): a variable list, but usually Annunciation, Nativity, Resurrection, Ascension, Assumption; here Gawain's force or valour or bravery is said to derive from them (forsnes 'fortitude' in the original).
'5. The "fyft fyue" are the social virtues...' (Notes).

The pentangle is a symbol that has significance in "pagan" tradition as well, but is given religious value in this tale in order to give it about the same sort of significance as it originally held. "Therefore, this symbol, like many other symbols utilized by knights and soldiers, were (sic) taken and used to represent a knight's particular religious beliefs for the purpose of protection, physical remembrance and reverence to religious beings, or personal representation of one's own values and aspirations as a pious and chivalric virtues of a knight" (Religion).

Just as the hero in most epic poems is described in narratives dripping with rich praise, Sir Gawain is described as being virtuous and overall a "good knight" throughout the work (Norton 1659, line 748). He has strong moral fiber and though he is tempted, he never commits adultery (but he isn't above kissing--and I mean everyone). By the end of the tale, Sir Gawain shows that he isn't perfect, however, and comes back with the girdle and a nick from the Green Knight to show for his failings (though King Arthur and the rest of his gang all appear pretty unperturbed about both considering their reaction at the end).

Overall, this work shows the importance of the code of chivalry to those living in the 14th century. It uses symbolism to express the pious and generally good nature of Sir Gawain--both religiously and morally--through specific items (such as the pentangle and the girdle). While it expresses the ideas dearest to the medieval society, it also moves its readers through language that flows with beautiful alliteration and descriptive genius.

The Green Knight's horse, just chilling out in the pasture with a friend...

Dante's Inferno

Dante Alighieri's Hell 

(Click the Hell link above to see a simple pictorial representation of Dante's Hell).

Dante's Hell is explained in a very interesting way in Dante's Inferno. The entirety of Hell is described as a funnel-shape, leading eventually to the bottom where Satan/Lucifer sits. Along the funnel, however, are circles (separated by each canto) where separate eternal punishments exist depending on the different sins. It is through Dante's explanations of these separate circles that we find some humor peeking through his overall message. 

Dante uses many of the names of his contemporaries in this work, often poking fun at them through his description of their punishments (or foreseen punishments) in Hell. Some of the people he makes fun of are long-dead, others are those he dislikes, while still others are those he actually admires--no one is safe from his satire. For instance, in Canto XV Dante describes his former teacher, Brunetto Latini, who was a famous Florentine intellectual, as being punished in Hell in the circle kept for Sodomy (though this is never stated in the work except in a footnote on 1512) (Norton 1510-1512). Also, in the same section, a man named "Jacopo Rusticucci," blames his wife for his sin of sodomy. In Canto XVIII, those who are known as 'Flatterers' are "immersed in excrement" as punishment for their sin (1519). The hilarity of this part is further pronounced in lines 115-126, wherein Dante includes his brief conversation with Alessio Interminei from Lucca, a prominent citizen in Northern Italy. Dante makes multiple references to his own exile, and to "the rustic party" as well, of which he was allied. 

Dante mixes mythology with religion in this narrative, often making references to monsters that have been fought by Hercules, or are simply related to "pagan" gods like Jupiter, Juno, and so on. The Gorgon (Norton 1491, lines 52-60) is a threat to Dante's "pilgrim" (himself) at one point (and Virgil is ever vigilant in protecting him throughout), as are centaurs and giants. For example, lines 25-33 in Canto XXV refer specifically to the monstrous centaur with snakes on his back, Cacus, who was defeated in legend by Hercules (Norton 1543). The Furies also make an appearance in this work, and are each called by their individual names. It is uncertain as to why Dante chose to mix in mythos with religion, though this is perhaps a critique on religion as well. Regardless, the monsters he includes add their own spice to the rest of the tale, making it all the more interesting and fun to read because of the way their appearance relate to other religious and non-religious tales. 

Some of the most humorous part of the poem may be smaller details such as the part about the devils saluting to one another, making crude gestures and then the leader farting in response. It is also funny that Dante made the title "poet" sacred in Hell, giving it benefits over any other sort of career present in Hell (seeing as Dante was a poet himself, this is not altogether surprising) (1476, lines 76-79). 

Small parts of the work are interesting because of the beauty of their writing, but also because some of the words used or phrases are not familiar to us now. For instance, the word "spelt," which relates to an ancient grain, is used at one point during the tale (and I was not aware of it previously). The word "contrapasso" is used in Canto XXVIII, and it usually means "counter-penalty," or retribution (an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth). However, Dante is using it here to mean that the punishment for a sin is the sin itself--whatever sin a sinner committed in life, they commit for eternity in Hell (Norton 1460). So perhaps a flatterer is forever cursed to flatter others as he wallows in shit? 

It is also interesting to note that those heretics in Dante's Hell can see the future but not the present, and that after Judgment Day (when everyone gets their bodies back), they will be unable to see anything at all (Norton 1496, lines 97-108). Perhaps this punishment is dealt because to know something and be unable to stop it or to know if it is even being set in motion presently is a kind of torture (this feeling can be equated to how an audience might feel over the dramatic irony of Romeo's suicide in Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet).

I remembered this link from a few years ago when I first had to read Dante's Divine Comedy: Click Here

This is another site of the same sort (perhaps better to use as a resource): Click Here

The Koran

The video above depicts The Qur'an read aloud by a child.

If one compares The Koran (Qur'an) with a few other ancient holy texts (such as The Bible and The Torah), and it is likely there will be a number of similarities. This is certainly due in part to the location of the major holy land to Muslims (followers of The Koran and Allah, respectively), Jews (followers of The Torah and God, respectively) and Christians (followers of The Bible and Christ/God, respectively)--Jerusalem. Unfortunately, the similarities are not what many followers of any of these religions tend to focus on when it comes to interacting in daily life and sharing space in the holy land. But that does not mean the similarities or the differences should be lost altogether, as it is an important part of being human to respect the beliefs and differences of others. It is also what helps halt wars, allows us to grow individually, and helps us learn from one another. 

That being said, there are differences between The Bible and The Koran, such as the simple way in which, in the excerpt in The Norton Anthology: Western Literature, vol. 1 "From 4. Women," we see the very specific way in which rules on living are given to the reader. An example of this is the line, "A male shall inherit twice as much as a female"(1151). Many occasions, such as deaths and inheritance, as well as the ritualistic treatment of women and children to enforce the rights of men and elders in general are explained in very clear detail in The Koran. The Bible has rules to live by, but they often (depending on the translation) tend to involve wording that can be left up to the reader for open interpretation. This ambiguity in meaning can lead to differences in the way separate sects of Christianity enforce and follow these parts of the text (though this is likely with anything in the holy texts, it appears most readily observed in treatment of The Bible and its wording). The Koran also specifically relates only to Allah (God), while The Bible relates to what is known as the "(Holy) Trinity".

Many similarities are present between The Koran and The Bible as well. The general idea of God as a wrathful, jealous god, tends to be the theme in both holy Books. Furthermore, both holy works have references to similar characters and stories, such as the story of Joseph (Norton 1168-1173). However, while The Bible  seems to gloss briefly over the scene containing Joseph's attempted seduction, The Koran provides a bit more detail in what leads up to it and what happens afterwards. The version of this tale in The Koran also ends with the sentence, "This is no invented tale, but a confirmation of previous scriptures, an explanation of all things, a guide and a blessing to true believers" (Norton 1173). The "Old Testament" of The Bible is thought to have been written beginning in 10th Century B.C. (but it is believed to have been written over a few centuries altogether) (HistoryWorld.net). What is known as the "recitation" of The Koran is believed to have occurred in 610 A.D. (JewishVirtualLibrary.org). That is quite a difference in time periods! 

While Christianity has spread through the consistent translation and interpretation (and re-interpretation) of its one holy text, Islam has spread through very little need for interpretation or alteration of any sort. Islam is often considered the fastest spreading religion in the world, and according to the world factbook, in 2009: Christian 33.35% (of which Roman Catholic 16.83%, Protestant 6.08%, Orthodox 4.03%, Anglican 1.26%), Muslim 22.43%, Hindu 13.78%, Buddhist 7.13%, Sikh 0.36%, Jewish 0.21%, Baha'i 0.11%, other religions 11.17%, non-religious 9.42%, atheists 2.04% (2009 est.)(CIA World Factbook). Muslims and Christians have the highest number of followers in the world. Thus, it makes it altogether more important for them to have a basic knowledge of one another's cultures and holy teachings in order simply to (if nothing else) respect one another and to discover perspectives they might not have considered previously. 

Here is a link that I'll add simply for the sake of it being a resource I found incredibly useful.

Petronius' The Satyricon

The Satyricon--particularly Trimalchio's dinner is an example of "Menippean satire"(About.com). It revolves around the character, Encolpius. The Satyricon exposes the baseness of humanity--it is debauchery at its finest, and centers especially around hedonism.

The best way to describe The Satyricon is that it resembles one continuous frat party. All of the characters in the dinner scene with Trimalchio appear to be self-absorbed, drunken, silly people. However, they do not seem evil or filled with maliciousness beyond that which is exposed when they do not get what they want. For the most part, very little is done in this tale unless it is for pleasure. Fortunata is an interesting character, though she is hardly treated kindly or represented in a very kind light. She appears greedy, proud, and mildly ignorant. Her greatest personal desire in the work is to sit around kissing her girlfriends drunkenly as she shows off all of her expensive jewelry (Norton 1077). She is hardly a character to mold one's self after, and yet she brings a sort of humor to the whole scene with her presence due to the way she is described and treated by others in the work. Almost the entirety of The Satyricon is full of hypocrisy and contradictions. Up until the point where Trimalchio begins kissing the boy and she reacts negatively, Fortunata kisses her fellow girls as though there is nothing wrong with it (1077-1078). However, the moment Trimalchio kisses the boy, she insults Trimalchio as though he is disgusting, exposing a bit of a “double-standard” of behavior. Trimalchio later gives a very strange explanation for why he kissed the boy--"I kissed this very careful little fellow, not for his pretty face, but because he's careful with money..." (Norton 1080). The quote from Trimalchio that pretty much sums up the overall view in this work by the characters in it, "Believe me: have a penny, and you're worth a penny. You got something, you'll be thought something. Like your old friend--first a frog, now a king" (1081). It appears that in The Satyracon, as long as a powerful person states something, it must be so (politics?). 

Here is a clip of the film Satyricon (1969) by Frederico Fellini. It is loosely based on the work, The Satyricon, and while it is in Italian, it is interesting to get a glimpse into the world that Petronius painted.

Catullus

Catullus wrote of love and its loss in poetry. It is unknown precisely when he began writing, though it was likely between 84 B.C. (his birth) and 54 B.C. (his death) (Norton 921). He was considered a “neoteric,” or new poet, and rejected the fashionable style of poetry from the period: the epic (Poets.org). The poems found in The Norton Anthology: Western Literature, Vol. 1 are a mere handful of the 116 poems he left behind, though they speak plainly of his passion for--and suffering over--the woman he calls "Lesbia" (Norton 921). This is due to his personal style, which is such that it touches the audience because it exposes a very vulnerable image that is reminiscent of Sappho's love poems. Catullus’ poems are most interesting because together or apart, they tell a story of love (and its loss) that reaches across generations. 

Lesbia and Catullus' love story is a rocky one. "Lesbia, let us live only for loving" is the first line of poem 5, which perfectly sums up the beginning emotions of any romantic relationship (Norton 922). It is from here that we see the shape of something beautiful beginning to blossom. Then, poem 2 expresses a playful intimacy with the pure image of a sparrow standing in for something a little more risqué (921). All stages of love are seen in Catullus' verses, as we go from Lesbia being the boon of his heart to its bane (no, not that kind of Bane). In 109, Catullus describes feelings of doubt in the reciprocation of his love for Lesbia, "Darling, we'll both have equal shares in the sweet love you offer,/ and it will endure forever--you assure me" (Norton 923, lines 1-2). In 83, we find that Lesbia is married, and as she says hurtful things to Catullus, he contents himself by insulting Lesbia's husband and calling him a fool (923, lines 1-3). He also believes the reason for Lesbia's abuse is simply that she has not forgotten her love for Catullus and "...this burns her" (923, line 6).


As Catullus' rocky love story continues, he writes in poem 70, "...what a woman says to a passionate lover/ ought to be scribbled on wind, on running water" (Norton 924, lines 3-4), 72 "Now that I know you... ...I regard you as almost utterly worthless" and "...cruelty forces/lust to assume the shrunken place of affection" (lines 5-8). From poem 85 and on until poem 76, everything goes downhill. In poem  76, lines 17-19 sum up the emotion of one trying to heal the hurt of a lost love: "O gods, if pity is yours, or if ever to any/ who lay near death you offered the gift of your mercy, look on my suffering..." (Norton 926).


The beauty of this work is its pure agony as well as its superb joy. The words are felt so powerfully in their telling that one cannot help but feel for Catullus in his story of lost love.  

Original Catullus-style Poem in (attempted) Sapphic meter

Your cruelty knows no bounds—my heart tells me so

For in your kindest way you spit on it now

Again with a taunting smile and a witty jest you murder me

There is nothing left of your ocean’s eyes now

With all your feverish fondling torn away

Now emptiness is all I can claim to take away home with me

The heart is now a cage’d beast I keep fed

On scraps of my memories of stolen love

And I fear now I will always be trapp’d here to feed it

What should I do to break this heart’s misery?

What words should I speak to end its loneliness?

Should I end its sad life and break this awful spell on it?